Post-selection Inference in Multiverse Analysis (PIMA): An Inferential Framework Based on the Sign Flipping Score Test.

When analyzing data, researchers make some choices that are either arbitrary, based on subjective beliefs about the data-generating process, or for which equally justifiable alternative choices could have been made. This wide range of data-analytic choices can be abused and has been one of the underlying causes of the replication crisis in several fields. Recently, the introduction of multiverse analysis provides researchers with a method to evaluate the stability of the results across reasonable choices that could be made when analyzing data. Multiverse analysis is confined to a descriptive role, lacking a proper and comprehensive inferential procedure. Recently, specification curve analysis adds an inferential procedure to multiverse analysis, but this approach is limited to simple cases related to the linear model, and only allows researchers to infer whether at least one specification rejects the null hypothesis, but not which specifications should be selected. In this paper, we present a Post-selection Inference approach to Multiverse Analysis (PIMA) which is a flexible and general inferential approach that considers for all possible models, i.e., the multiverse of reasonable analyses. The approach allows for a wide range of data specifications (i.e., preprocessing) and any generalized linear model; it allows testing the null hypothesis that a given predictor is not associated with the outcome, by combining information from all reasonable models of multiverse analysis, and provides strong control of the family-wise error rate allowing researchers to claim that the null hypothesis can be rejected for any specification that shows a significant effect. The inferential proposal is based on a conditional resampling procedure. We formally prove that the Type I error rate is controlled, and compute the statistical power of the test through a simulation study. Finally, we apply the PIMA procedure to the analysis of a real dataset on the self-reported hesitancy for the COronaVIrus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine before and after the 2020 lockdown in Italy. We conclude with practical recommendations to be considered when implementing the proposed procedure.

Spatial hearing training in virtual reality with simulated asymmetric hearing loss.

Sound localization is essential to perceive the surrounding world and to interact with objects. This ability can be learned across time, and multisensory and motor cues play a crucial role in the learning process. A recent study demonstrated that when training localization skills, reaching to the sound source to determine its position reduced localization errors faster and to a greater extent as compared to just naming sources' positions, despite the fact that in both tasks, participants received the same feedback about the correct position of sound sources in case of wrong response. However, it remains to establish which features have made reaching to sound more effective as compared to naming. In the present study, we introduced a further condition in which the hand is the effector providing the response, but without it reaching toward the space occupied by the target source: the pointing condition. We tested three groups of participants (naming, pointing, and reaching groups) each while performing a sound localization task in normal and altered listening situations (i.e. mild-moderate unilateral hearing loss) simulated through auditory virtual reality technology. The experiment comprised four blocks: during the first and the last block, participants were tested in normal listening condition, while during the second and the third in altered listening condition. We measured their performance, their subjective judgments (e.g. effort), and their head-related behavior (through kinematic tracking). First, people's performance decreased when exposed to asymmetrical mild-moderate hearing impairment, more specifically on the ipsilateral side and for the pointing group. Second, we documented that all groups decreased their localization errors across altered listening blocks, but the extent of this reduction was higher for reaching and pointing as compared to the naming group. Crucially, the reaching group leads to a greater error reduction for the side where the listening alteration was applied. Furthermore, we documented that, across blocks, reaching and pointing groups increased the implementation of head motor behavior during the task (i.e., they increased approaching head movements toward the space of the sound) more than naming. Third, while performance in the unaltered blocks (first and last) was comparable, only the reaching group continued to exhibit a head behavior similar to those developed during the altered blocks (second and third), corroborating the previous observed relationship between the reaching to sounds task and head movements. In conclusion, this study further demonstrated the effectiveness of reaching to sounds as compared to pointing and naming in the learning processes. This effect could be related both to the process of implementing goal-directed motor actions and to the role of reaching actions in fostering the implementation of head-related motor strategies.

A comparison between different variants of the spatial Stroop task: The influence of analytic flexibility on Stroop effect estimates and reliability.

The spatial Stroop task measures the ability to resolve interference between relevant and irrelevant spatial information. We recently proposed a four-choice spatial Stroop task that ensures methodological advantages over the original color-word verbal Stroop task, requiring participants to indicate the direction of an arrow while ignoring its position in one of the screen corners. However, its peripheral spatial arrangement might represent a methodological weakness and could introduce experimental confounds. Thus, aiming at improving our "Peripheral" spatial Stroop, we designed and made available five novel spatial Stroop tasks (Perifoveal, Navon, Figure-Ground, Flanker, and Saliency), wherein the stimuli appeared at the center of the screen. In a within-subjects online study, we compared the six versions to identify which task produced the largest but also the most reliable and robust Stroop effect. Indeed, although internal reliability is frequently overlooked, its estimate is fundamental, also in light of the recently proposed reliability paradox. Data analyses were performed using both the classical general linear model analytical approach and two multilevel modelling approaches (linear mixed models and random coefficient analysis), which specifically served for more accurately estimating the Stroop effect by explaining intra-subject, trial-by-trial variability. We then assessed our results based on their robustness to such analytic flexibility. Overall, our results indicate that the Perifoveal spatial Stroop is the best alternative task for its statistical properties and methodological advantages. Interestingly, our results also indicate that the Peripheral and Perifoveal Stroop effects were not only the largest, but also those with highest and most robust internal reliability.

Motor deficits in autism differ from that of developmental coordination disorder.

LAY ABSTRACT: A vast majority of individuals with autism spectrum disorder experience impairments in motor skills. Those are often labelled as additional developmental coordination disorder despite the lack of studies comparing both disorders. Consequently, motor skills rehabilitation programmes in autism are often not specific but rather consist in standard programmes for developmental coordination disorder. Here, we compared motor performance in three groups of children: a control group, an autism spectrum disorder group and a developmental coordination disorder group. Despite similar level of motor skills evaluated by the standard movement assessment battery for children, in a Reach-to-Displace Task, children with autism spectrum disorder and developmental coordination disorder showed specific motor control deficits. Children with autism spectrum disorder failed to anticipate the object properties, but could correct their movement as well as typically developing children. In contrast, children with developmental coordination disorder were atypically slow, but showed a spared anticipation. Our study has important clinical implications as motor skills rehabilitations are crucial to both populations. Specifically, our findings suggest that individuals with autism spectrum disorder would benefit from therapies aiming at improving their anticipation, maybe through the support of their preserved representations and use of sensory information. Conversely, individuals with developmental coordination disorder would benefit from a focus on the use of sensory information in a timely fashion.

lmeEEG: Mass linear mixed-effects modeling of EEG data with crossed random effects.

BACKGROUND: Mixed-effects models are the current standard for the analysis of behavioral studies in psycholinguistics and related fields, given their ability to simultaneously model crossed random effects for subjects and items. However, they are hardly applied in neuroimaging and psychophysiology, where the use of mass univariate analyses in combination with permutation testing would be too computationally demanding to be practicable with mixed models. NEW METHOD: Here, we propose and validate an analytical strategy that enables the use of linear mixed models (LMM) with crossed random intercepts in mass univariate analyses of EEG data (lmeEEG). It avoids the unfeasible computational costs that would arise from massive permutation testing with LMM using a simple solution: removing random-effects contributions from EEG data and performing mass univariate linear analysis and permutations on the obtained marginal EEG. RESULTS: lmeEEG showed excellent performance properties in terms of power and false positive rate. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: lmeEEG overcomes the computational costs of standard available approaches (our method was indeed more than 300 times faster). CONCLUSIONS: lmeEEG allows researchers to use mixed models with EEG mass univariate analyses. Thanks to the possibility offered by the method described here, we anticipate that LMM will become increasingly important in neuroscience. Data and codes are available at osf.io/kw87a. The codes and a tutorial are also available at github.com/antovis86/lmeEEG.

Permutation-based true discovery proportions for functional magnetic resonance imaging cluster analysis.

We propose a permutation-based method for testing a large collection of hypotheses simultaneously. Our method provides lower bounds for the number of true discoveries in any selected subset of hypotheses. These bounds are simultaneously valid with high confidence. The methodology is particularly useful in functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging cluster analysis, where it provides a confidence statement on the percentage of truly activated voxels within clusters of voxels, avoiding the well-known spatial specificity paradox. We offer a user-friendly tool to estimate the percentage of true discoveries for each cluster while controlling the family-wise error rate for multiple testing and taking into account that the cluster was chosen in a data-driven way. The method adapts to the spatial correlation structure that characterizes functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging data, gaining power over parametric approaches.

ß3AR-Dependent Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Generation Limits Chronic Postischemic Heart Failure.

BACKGROUND: Loss of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)/TrkB (tropomyosin kinase receptor B) signaling accounts for brain and cardiac disorders. In neurons, ß-adrenergic receptor stimulation enhances local BDNF expression. It is unclear if this occurs in a pathophysiological relevant manner in the heart, especially in the ß-adrenergic receptor-desensitized postischemic myocardium. Nor is it fully understood whether and how TrkB agonists counter chronic postischemic left ventricle (LV) decompensation, a significant unmet clinical milestone. METHODS: We conducted in vitro studies using neonatal rat and adult murine cardiomyocytes, SH-SY5Y neuronal cells, and umbilical vein endothelial cells. We assessed myocardial ischemia (MI) impact in wild type, ß3AR knockout, or myocyte-selective BDNF knockout (myoBDNF KO) mice in vivo (via coronary ligation [MI]) or in isolated hearts with global ischemia-reperfusion (I/R). RESULTS: In wild type hearts, BDNF levels rose early after MI (<24 hours), plummeting at 4 weeks when LV dysfunction, adrenergic denervation, and impaired angiogenesis ensued. The TrkB agonist, LM22A-4, countered all these adverse effects. Compared with wild type, isolated myoBDNF KO hearts displayed worse infarct size/LV dysfunction after I/R injury and modest benefits from LM22A-4. In vitro, LM22A-4 promoted neurite outgrowth and neovascularization, boosting myocyte function, effects reproduced by 7,8-dihydroxyflavone, a chemically unrelated TrkB agonist. Superfusing myocytes with the ß3AR-agonist, BRL-37344, increased myocyte BDNF content, while ß3AR signaling underscored BDNF generation/protection in post-MI hearts. Accordingly, the ß1AR blocker, metoprolol, via upregulated ß3ARs, improved chronic post-MI LV dysfunction, enriching the myocardium with BDNF. Last, BRL-37344-imparted benefits were nearly abolished in isolated I/R injured myoBDNF KO hearts. CONCLUSIONS: BDNF loss underscores chronic postischemic heart failure. TrkB agonists can improve ischemic LV dysfunction via replenished myocardial BDNF content. Direct cardiac ß3AR stimulation, or ß-blockers (via upregulated ß3AR), is another BDNF-based means to fend off chronic postischemic heart failure.

Enhanced hyperalignment via spatial prior information.

Functional alignment between subjects is an important assumption of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) group-level analysis. However, it is often violated in practice, even after alignment to a standard anatomical template. Hyperalignment, based on sequential Procrustes orthogonal transformations, has been proposed as a method of aligning shared functional information into a common high-dimensional space and thereby improving inter-subject analysis. Though successful, current hyperalignment algorithms have a number of shortcomings, including difficulties interpreting the transformations, a lack of uniqueness of the procedure, and difficulties performing whole-brain analysis. To resolve these issues, we propose the ProMises (Procrustes von Mises-Fisher) model. We reformulate functional alignment as a statistical model and impose a prior distribution on the orthogonal parameters (the von Mises-Fisher distribution). This allows for the embedding of anatomical information into the estimation procedure by penalizing the contribution of spatially distant voxels when creating the shared functional high-dimensional space. Importantly, the transformations, aligned images, and related results are all unique. In addition, the proposed method allows for efficient whole-brain functional alignment. In simulations and application to data from four fMRI studies we find that ProMises improves inter-subject classification in terms of between-subject accuracy and interpretability compared to standard hyperalignment algorithms.

Age-related changes in the primary auditory cortex of newborn, adults and aging bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) are located in the upper cortical layers.

Introduction: The auditory system of dolphins and whales allows them to dive in dark waters, hunt for prey well below the limit of solar light absorption, and to communicate with their conspecific. These complex behaviors require specific and sufficient functional circuitry in the neocortex, and vicarious learning capacities. Dolphins are also precocious animals that can hold their breath and swim within minutes after birth. However, diving and hunting behaviors are likely not innate and need to be learned. Our hypothesis is that the organization of the auditory cortex of dolphins grows and mature not only in the early phases of life, but also in adults and aging individuals. These changes may be subtle and involve sub-populations of cells specificall linked to some circuits. Methods: In the primary auditory cortex of 11 bottlenose dolphins belonging to three age groups (calves, adults, and old animals), neuronal cell shapes were analyzed separately and by cortical layer using custom computer vision and multivariate statistical analysis, to determine potential minute morphological differences across these age groups. Results: The results show definite changes in interneurons, characterized by round and ellipsoid shapes predominantly located in upper cortical layers. Notably, neonates interneurons exhibited a pattern of being closer together and smaller, developing into a more dispersed and diverse set of shapes in adulthood. Discussion: This trend persisted in older animals, suggesting a continuous development of connections throughout the life of these marine animals. Our findings further support the proposition that thalamic input reach upper layers in cetaceans, at least within a cortical area critical for their survival. Moreover, our results indicate the likelihood of changes in cell populations occurring in adult animals, prompting the need for characterization.

Up right, not right up: Primacy of verticality in both language and movement.

When describing motion along both the horizontal and vertical axes, languages from different families express the elements encoding verticality before those coding for horizontality (e.g., going up right instead of right up). In light of the motor grounding of language, the present study investigated whether the prevalence of verticality in Path expression also governs the trajectory of arm biological movements. Using a 3D virtual-reality setting, we tracked the kinematics of hand pointing movements in five spatial directions, two of which implied the vertical and horizontal vectors equally (i.e., up right +45° and bottom right -45°). Movement onset could be prompted by visual or auditory verbal cues, the latter being canonical in French ("en haut à droite"/up right) or not ("à droite en haut"/right up). In two experiments, analyses of the index finger kinematics revealed a significant effect of gravity, with earlier acceleration, velocity, and deceleration peaks for upward (+45°) than downward (-45°) movements, irrespective of the instructions. Remarkably, confirming the linguistic observations, we found that vertical kinematic parameters occurred earlier than horizontal ones for upward movements, both for visual and congruent verbal cues. Non-canonical verbal instructions significantly affected this temporal dynamic: for upward movements, the horizontal and vertical components temporally aligned, while they reversed for downward movements where the kinematics of the vertical axis was delayed with respect to that of the horizontal one. This temporal dynamic is so deeply anchored that non-canonical verbal instructions allowed for horizontality to precede verticality only for movements that do not fight against gravity. Altogether, our findings provide new insights into the embodiment of language by revealing that linguistic path may reflect the organization of biological movements, giving priority to the vertical axis.

Cell cycle alterations due to perfluoroalkyl substances PFOS, PFOA, PFBS, PFBA and the new PFAS C6O4 on bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) skin cell.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have become ubiquitous environmental contaminants in aquatic ecosystems worldwide. Marine mammals, as top predators, are constantly exposed to several PFAS compounds that accumulate in different tissues. As a proxy to assess cytotoxicity of PFAS in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), we generated a new immortalized cell line derived from skin samples of bottlenose dolphin. Using high content imaging, we assessed the effects of increasing concentrations of PFOS, PFOA, PFBS, PFBA and C6O4 on cell viability and cell cycle phases. In particular, we classified all cells based on multiple morphometric differences of the nucleus in three populations, named respectively "Normal" (nuclei in G0, S and M phase); "Large" (nuclei showing characteristics of senescence) and "Small" (nuclei with fragmentation and condensed chromatin). Combining this approach with cell cycle analysis we determined which phases of the cell cycle were influenced by PFAS. The results revealed that the presence of PFOS, PFBS and PFBA could increase the number of cells in G0+G1 phase and decrease the number of those in the S phase. Moreover, PFOS and PFBS lowered the fraction of cells in the M phase. Interestingly PFOS, PFBS and PFBA reduced the prevalence of the senescence phenotype ("large" nuclei), suggesting a potential tumorigenic effect. Besides, the presence of PFOS and PFBS correlated also with a significant decrease in the number of "small" nuclei. The C6O4 exposure did not highlighted morphometric alteration or cell cycle modification bottlenose dolphin skin cell nuclei. While the effects of PFAS on cell cycle was clear, no significant change was detected either in term of cell proliferation or of viability. This study fosters the overall knowledge on the cellular effects of perfluoroalkyl substances in marine mammals.

Transgenerational effects and phenotypic plasticity in sperm and larvae of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus under ocean acidification.

In marine organisms, differing degree of sensitivity to ocean acidification (OA) is expected for each life stage, and disturbance at one stage can carry over into the following stage or following generation. In this study we investigated phenotypic changes of sperm and larvae of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus in response to different pH conditions (8.0, 7.7, 7.4) experienced by the parents during gametogenesis. In sperm from two-months exposed males, sperm motility, velocity, ATP content, ATP consumption and respiration rate were evaluated at three pH values of the activating medium (8.0, 7.7 and 7.4). Moreover, larvae from each parental group were reared at pH 8.0 and 7.7 for 20 days and larval mortality and growth were then assessed. Sperm motility and respiration rate were not affected either by exposure of males to low pH or by the post-activation pH. Sperm velocity did not differ among post-activation pH values in all sperm groups, but it decreased slower in sperm developed under acidified conditions, suggesting the presence of positive carryover effect on sperm longevity. This positive carryover effect of exposure of males to low pH values was highlighted also for the sperm ATP content, which was higher in these groups of sperm. ATP consumption rate was affected by post-activation pH with higher values at pH 8.0 in sperm from males maintained at control condition and pH 7.7 while the energy consumption appeared to be differently modulated at different experimental conditions. A negative carry over effect of OA was observed on survival of larvae from parents acclimated at pH 7.4 and additive negative effects of both parental and larval exposure to low pH can be suggested. In all groups of larvae, decreased somatic growth was observed at low rearing pH, thus larvae from parents maintained at low pH did not show an increased capability to cope with OA.

Procrustes Analysis for High-Dimensional Data.

The Procrustes-based perturbation model (Goodall in J R Stat Soc Ser B Methodol 53(2):285-321, 1991) allows minimization of the Frobenius distance between matrices by similarity transformation. However, it suffers from non-identifiability, critical interpretation of the transformed matrices, and inapplicability in high-dimensional data. We provide an extension of the perturbation model focused on the high-dimensional data framework, called the ProMises (Procrustes von Mises-Fisher) model. The ill-posed and interpretability problems are solved by imposing a proper prior distribution for the orthogonal matrix parameter (i.e., the von Mises-Fisher distribution) which is a conjugate prior, resulting in a fast estimation process. Furthermore, we present the Efficient ProMises model for the high-dimensional framework, useful in neuroimaging, where the problem has much more than three dimensions. We found a great improvement in functional magnetic resonance imaging connectivity analysis because the ProMises model permits incorporation of topological brain information in the alignment's estimation process.

The Influence of 5-HTTLPR, BDNF Rs6265 and COMT Rs4680 Polymorphisms on Impulsivity in Bipolar Disorder: The Role of Gender.

Impulsivity has been proposed as an endophenotype for bipolar disorder (BD); moreover, impulsivity levels have been shown to carry prognostic significance and to be quality-of-life predictors. To date, reports about the genetic determinants of impulsivity in mood disorders are limited, with no studies on BD individuals. Individuals with BD and healthy controls (HC) were recruited in the context of an observational, multisite study (GECOBIP). Subjects were genotyped for three candidate single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (5-HTTLPR, COMT rs4680, BDNF rs6265); impulsivity was measured through the Italian version of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11). A mixed-effects regression model was built, with BIS scores as dependent variables, genotypes of the three polymorphisms as fixed effects, and centers of enrollment as random effect. Compared to HC, scores for all BIS factors were higher among subjects with euthymic BD (adjusted ß for Total BIS score: 5.35, p < 0.001). No significant interaction effect was evident between disease status (HC vs. BD) and SNP status for any polymorphism. Considering the whole sample, BDNF Met/Met homozygosis was associated with lower BIS scores across all three factors (adjusted ß for Total BIS score: −10.2, p < 0.001). A significant 5-HTTLPR x gender interaction was found for the SS genotype, associated with higher BIS scores in females only (adjusted ß for Total BIS score: 12.0, p = 0.001). Finally, COMT polymorphism status was not significantly associated with BIS scores. In conclusion, BD diagnosis did not influence the effect on impulsivity scores for any of the three SNPs considered. Only one SNP­the BDNF rs6265 Met/Met homozygosis­was independently associated with lower impulsivity scores. The 5-HTTLPR SS genotype was associated with higher impulsivity scores in females only. Further studies adopting genome-wide screening in larger samples are needed to define the genetic basis of impulsivity in BD.

Predicting comments on Facebook photos: Who posts might matter more than what type of photo is posted.

The number of likes and comments received to social media posts and images are influential for users' self-presentation and problematic Facebook use. The aim of this study was to highlight the most relevant factors predicting the popularity (i.e., the probability to receive at a least a comment) of Facebook photos based on: (i) Facebook user-related features; (ii) Facebook photo-related features; and (iii) and psychological variables. A mixed approach was used, including objective data extracted from Facebook (regarding users' characteristics and photo features) as well as answers to a questionnaire. Participants were 227 Facebook users (M = 25.01(1.05) years). They were asked to answer a questionnaire and provide a copy of their Facebook profile data. A total of 180,547 photos receiving a total of 122,689 comments were extracted. Results showed that user-related features (Facebook network and activities) were the most relevant in predicting image popularity accurately. It seems that who posts a Facebook photo matters more than the type of photo posted and the psychological profile of the user. Results are discussed within a psychological perspective. Future research should look at the sentiment (positive vs. negative) of the comments received by different types of photos. This is the first study exploring what makes a Facebook photo popular using objective data rather than self-reported frequency of Facebook activity only. Results might advance current methods and knowledge about potential problematic behaviors on social media.

Insula volumes in first-episode and chronic psychosis: A longitudinal MRI study.

BACKGROUND: Alterations in insular grey matter (GM) volume has been consistently reported for affective and non-affective psychoses both in chronic and first-episode patients, ultimately suggesting that the insula might represent a good region to study in order to assess the longitudinal course of psychotic disorders. Therefore, in this longitudinal Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) study, we aimed at further investigating the key role of insular volumes in psychosis. MATERIAL AND METHODS: 68 First-Episode Psychosis (FEP) patients, 68 patients with Schizophrenia (SCZ), 47 Bipolar Disorder (BD) patients, and 94 Healthy Controls (HC) were enrolled and underwent a 1.5 T MRI evaluation. A subsample of 99 subjects (10 HC, 23 BD, 29 SCZ, 37 FEP) was rescanned after 2,53 ± 1,68 years. The insular cortex was manually traced and then divided into an anterior and posterior portion. Group and correlation analyses were then performed both at baseline and at follow-up. RESULTS: At baseline, greater anterior and lower posterior insular GM volumes were observed in chronic patients. At follow-up, we found that FEP patients had a significant GM volume increase from baseline to follow-up, especially in the posterior insula whereas chronic patients showed a relative stability. Finally, significant negative correlations between illness severity and pharmacological treatment and insular GM volumes were observed in the whole group of psychotic patients. CONCLUSIONS: The longitudinal assessment of both chronic and first-episode patients allowed us to detect a complex pattern of GM abnormalities in selective sub-portions of insular volumes, ultimately suggesting that this structure could represent a key biological marker of psychotic disorders.

The primary visual cortex of Cetartiodactyls: organization, cytoarchitectonics and comparison with perissodactyls and primates.

Cetartiodactyls include terrestrial and marine species, all generally endowed with a comparatively lateral position of their eyes and a relatively limited binocular field of vision. To this day, our understanding of the visual system in mammals beyond the few studied animal models remains limited. In the present study, we examined the primary visual cortex of Cetartiodactyls that live on land (sheep, Père David deer, giraffe); in the sea (bottlenose dolphin, Risso's dolphin, long-finned pilot whale, Cuvier's beaked whale, sperm whale and fin whale); or in an amphibious environment (hippopotamus). We also sampled and studied the visual cortex of the horse (a closely related perissodactyl) and two primates (chimpanzee and pig-tailed macaque) for comparison. Our histochemical and immunohistochemical results indicate that the visual cortex of Cetartiodactyls is characterized by a peculiar organization, structure, and complexity of the cortical column. We noted a general lesser lamination compared to simians, with diminished density, and an apparent simplification of the intra- and extra-columnar connections. The presence and distribution of calcium-binding proteins indicated a notable absence of parvalbumin in water species and a strong reduction of layer 4, usually enlarged in the striated cortex, seemingly replaced by a more diffuse distribution in neighboring layers. Consequently, thalamo-cortical inputs are apparently directed to the higher layers of the column. Computer analyses and statistical evaluation of the data confirmed the results and indicated a substantial correlation between eye placement and cortical structure, with a markedly segregated pattern in cetaceans compared to other mammals. Furthermore, cetacean species showed several types of cortical lamination which may reflect differences in function, possibly related to depth of foraging and consequent progressive disappearance of light, and increased importance of echolocation.

Body schema plasticity is altered in Developmental Coordination Disorder.

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a pathological condition characterized by impaired motor skills. Current theories advance that a deficit of the internal models is mainly responsible for DCD children's altered behavior. Yet, accurate movement execution requires not only correct movement planning, but also integration of sensory feedback into body representation for action (Body Schema) to update the state of the body. Here we advance and test the hypothesis that the plasticity of this body representation is altered in DCD. To probe Body Schema (BS) plasticity, we submitted a well-established tool-use paradigm to seventeen DCD children, required to reach for an object with their hand before and after tool use, and compared their movement kinematics to that of a control group of Typically Developing (TD) peers. We also asked both groups to provide explicit estimates of their arm length to probe plasticity of their Body Image (BI). Results revealed that DCD children explicitly judged their arm shorter after tool use, showing changes in their BI comparable to their TD peers. Unlike them, though, DCD did not update their implicit BS estimate: kinematics showed that tool use affected their peak amplitudes, but not their latencies. Remarkably, the kinematics of tool use showed that the motor control of the tool was comparable between groups, both improving with practice, confirming that motor learning abilities are preserved in DCD. This study thus brings evidence in favor of an alternative theoretical account of the DCD etiology. Our findings point to a deficit in the plasticity of the body representation used to plan and execute movements. Though not mutually exclusive, this widens the theoretical perspective under which DCD should be considered: DCD may not be limited to a problem affecting the internal models and their motor functions, but may concern the state of the effector they have to use.

Couples undergoing Assisted Reproductive Techniques: An Actor-Partner Interdependence Model of dyadic adjustment, attachment, and body-image avoidance.

The aim is to assess the commonalities and interdependence referred to body-image avoidance among 118 couples newly introduced to first-level assisted reproductive techniques. Results showed non-clinical functioning levels, and partners showed a correlated, yet low, dyadic adjustment. The couple-effect was modeled through an Actor Partner Interdependence Model. For both partners, dyadic adjustment's actor-effect associates with body-image avoidance. Moreover, psychological symptoms' actor-effect associate to body-image avoidance, resulting significantly more influential than the partner-effect. Only for males, alexithymia's actor-effect was significant. To conclude, partners' functioning is quite specular yet not interdependent, as they do not show a couple-as-a-unit modality of functioning. Clinical implications are discussed.